Globalisation And original education improvement In Tanzania: Prospects And Challenges-Maths Practice Questions
1. Summary of the Country and traditional education System:
Tanzania covers 945,000 square kilometres, including approximately 60,000 square kilometres of inland water. The habitancy is about 32 million habitancy with an mean annual growth rate of 2.8 percent per year. Females contain 51% of the total population. The majority of the habitancy resides on the Mainland, while the rest of the habitancy resides in Zanzibar. The life expectancy is 50 years and the mortality rate is 8.8%. The cheaper depends upon Agriculture, Tourism, Manufacturing, Mining and Fishing. Agriculture contributes about 50% of Gdp and accounting for about two-thirds of Tanzania's exports. Tourism contributes 15.8%; and manufacturing, 8.1% and mining, 1.7%. The school ideas is a 2-7-4-2-3+ consisting of pre-primary, traditional school, lowly level secondary education, developed level secondary, Technical and Higher Education. traditional School education is compulsory whereby parents are supposed to take their children to school for enrollment. The medium of education in traditional is Kiswahili.
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One of the key objectives of the first president J.K. Nyerere was development strategy for Tanzania as reflected in the 1967 Arusha Declaration, which to be ensuring that basic public services were ready equitably to all members of society. In the education sector, this goal was translated into the 1974 Universal traditional education Movement, whose goal was to make traditional education universally available, compulsory, and provided free of cost to users to ensure it reached the poorest. As the strategy was implemented, large-scale increases in the numbers of traditional schools and teachers were brought about through campaign-style programs with the help of donor financing. By the beginning of the 1980s, each hamlet in Tanzania had a traditional school and gross traditional school enrollment reached nearly 100 percent, although the potential of education provided was not very high. From 1996 the education sector proceeded through the activate and execution of traditional education development Plan - Pedp in 2001 to date.
2. Globalization
To different scholars, the definition of globalization may be different. Agreeing to Cheng (2000), it may refer to the transfer, adaptation, and development of values, knowledge, technology, and behavioral norms over countries and societies in different parts of the world. The typical phenomena and characteristics related with globalization contain growth of global networking (e.g. Internet, world wide e-communication, and transportation), global exchange and interflow in technological, economic, social, political, cultural, and learning areas, international alliances and competitions, international collaboration and exchange, global village, multi-cultural integration, and use of international standards and benchmarks. See also Makule (2008) and MoEc (2000).
3. Globalization in education
In education discipline globalization can mean the same as the above meanings as is concern, but most specifically all the key words directed in education matters. Dimmock & Walker (2005) argue that in a globalizing and internalizing world, it is not only company and business that are changing, education, too, is caught up in that new order. This situation provides each nation a new empirical challenge of how to write back to this new order. Since this accountability is within a national and that there is inequality in terms of economic level and possibly in cultural variations in the world, globalization seems to affect others undoubtedly and the vice versa (Bush 2005). In most of developing countries, these troops come as imposing troops from the exterior and are implemented undoubtedly because they do not have adequate resource to ensure its implementation (Arnove 2003; Crossley & Watson, 2004).
There is misinterpretation that globalization has no much impact on education because the traditional ways of delivering education is still continuing within a national state. But, it has been observed that while globalization continues to restructure the world economy, there are also marvelous ideological packages that reshape education ideas in different ways (Carnoy, 1999; Carnoy & Rhoten, 2002). While others seem to growth access, equity and potential in education, others affect the nature of educational management. Bush (2005) and Lauglo (1997) eye that decentralization of education is one of the global trends in the world which enable to reform educational leadership and supervision at different levels. They also argue that Decentralization troops help different level of educational supervision to have power of decision making related to the allocation of resources. Carnoy (1999) supplementary portrays that the global ideologies and economic changes are increasingly intertwined in the international institutions that broadcast single strategies for educational change. These contain western governments, multilateral and bilateral development agencies and Ngos (Crossley & Watson 2004). Also these agencies are the ones which produce global policies and exchange them through funds, conferences and other means. Certainly, with these marvelous troops education reforms and to be more specifically, the current reforms on school leadership to a large extent are influenced by globalization.
4. The School Leadership
In Tanzania the leadership and supervision of education systems and processes is increasingly seen as one area where revision can and need to be made in order to ensure that education is delivered not only efficiently but also efficaciously. Although literatures for education leadership in Tanzania are inadequate, Komba in EdQual (2006) pointed out that research in varied aspects of leadership and supervision of education, such as the structures and delivery stems of education; financing and alternative sources of support to education; preparation, nurturing and professional development of education leaders; the role of female educational leaders in revision of educational quality; as will as the link between education and poverty eradication, are deemed primary in approaching issues of educational potential in any sense and at any level. The nature of out of school factors that may render support to the potential of education e.g. traditional leadership institutions may also need to be looked into.
5. Impact of Globalization
As mentioned above, globalization is creating numerous opportunities for sharing knowledge, technology, public values, and behavioral norms and promoting developments at different levels including individuals, organizations, communities, and societies over different countries and cultures. Cheng (2000); Brown, (1999); Waters, (1995) pointed out the advantages of globalization as follows: Firstly it enable global sharing of knowledge, skills, and intellectual assets that are primary to multiple developments at different levels. The second is the mutual support, supplement and advantage to produce synergy for varied developments of countries, communities, and individuals. The third safe bet impact is creation of values and improving efficiency through the above global sharing and mutual support to serving local needs and growth. The fourth is the promotion of international understanding, collaboration, harmony and acceptance to cultural diversity over countries and regions. The fifth is facilitating multi-way communications and interactions, and encouraging multi-cultural contributions at different levels among countries.
The possible negative impacts of globalization are educationally involved in varied types of political, economic, and cultural colonization and amazing influences of developed countries to developing countries and rapidly addition gaps between rich areas and poor areas in different parts of the world. The first impact is addition the technological gaps and digital divides between developed countries and less developed countries that are hindering equal opportunities for fair global sharing. The second is creation of more legitimate opportunities for a few developed countries to economically and politically colonize other countries globally. Thirdly is exploitation of local resources which destroy indigenous cultures of less developed countries to advantage a few developed countries. Fourthly is the growth of inequalities and conflicts between areas and cultures. And fifthly is the promotion of the dominant cultures and values of some developed areas and accelerating cultural transplant from developed areas to less developed areas.
The supervision and control of the impacts of globalization are related to some involved macro and international issues that may be far beyond the scope of which I did not contain in this paper. Cheng (2002) pointed out that in general, many habitancy believe, education is one of key local factors that can be used to moderate some impacts of globalization from negative to safe bet and convert threats into opportunities for the development of individuals and local community in the safe bet process of globalization. How to maximize the safe bet effects but minimize the negative impacts of globalization is a major concern in current educational reform for national and local developments.
6. Globalization of education and multiple Theories
The view of writing this paper was influenced by the multiple theories propounded by Yin Cheng, (2002). He proposed a typology of multiple theories that can be used to conceptualize and practice fostering local knowledge in globalization particularly through globalized education. These theories of fostering local knowledge is proposed to address this key concern, namely as the ideas of tree, ideas of crystal, ideas of birdcage, ideas of Dna, ideas of fungus, and ideas of amoeba. Their implications for produce of curriculum and education and their thinkable, educational outcomes in globalized education are correspondingly different.
The ideas of tree assumes that the process of fostering local knowledge should have its roots in local values and traditions but absorb external useful and relevant resources from the global knowledge ideas to grow the whole local knowledge ideas inwards and outwards. The thinkable, outcome in globalized education will be to produce a local man with international outlook, who will act locally and produce globally. The vigor of this ideas is that the local community can vocalize and even supplementary produce its traditional values and cultural identity as it grows and interacts with the input of external resources and energy in accumulating local knowledge for local developments.
The ideas of crystal is the key of the fostering process to have "local seeds" to crystallize and acquire the global knowledge along a given local prospect and demand. Therefore, fostering local knowledge is to acquire global knowledge colse to some "local seeds" that may be to exist local demands and values to be fulfilled in these years. Agreeing to this theory, the produce of curriculum and education is to recognize the core local needs and values as the basic seeds to acquire those relevant global knowledge and resources for education. The thinkable, educational outcome is to produce a local man who remains a local man with some global knowledge and can act locally and think locally with addition global techniques. With local seeds to crystallize the global knowledge, there will be no disagreement between local needs and the external knowledge to be absorbed and accumulated in the development of local community and individuals.
The ideas of birdcage is about how to avoid the amazing and dominating global influences on the nation or local community. This ideas contends that the process of fostering local knowledge can be open for incoming global knowledge and resources but at the same time efforts should be made to limit or converge the local developments and related interactions with the exterior world to a fixed framework. In globalized education, it is primary to set up a framework with clear ideological boundaries and public norms for curriculum produce such that all educational activities can have a clear local focus when benefiting from the exposure of wide global knowledge and inputs. The thinkable, educational outcome is to produce a local man with bounded global outlook, who can act locally with filtered global knowledge. The ideas can help to ensure local relevance in globalized education and avoid any loss of local identity and concerns during globalization or international exposure.
The ideas of Dna represents numerous initiatives and reforms have made to remove dysfunctional local traditions and structures in country of periphery and replace them with new ideas borrowed from core countries. This ideas emphasizes on identifying and transplanting the good key elements from the global knowledge to replace the existing weaker local components in the local developments. In globalizing education, the curriculum produce should be very selective to both local and global knowledge with aims to pick the best elements from them. The thinkable, educational outcome is to produce a man with locally and globally mixed elements, who can act and think with mixed local and global knowledge. The vigor of this ideas is its openness for any rational investigation and transplant of valid knowledge and elements without any local wall or cultural burden. It can provide an sufficient way to learn and heighten the existing local practices and developments.
The ideas of fungus reflects the mode of fostering local knowledge in globalization. This ideas assumes that it is a faster and easier way to absorb and absorb safe bet relevant types of global knowledge for nutrition of individual and local developments, than to create their own local knowledge from the beginning. From this theory, the curriculum and education should aim at enabling students to recognize and learn what global knowledge is primary and primary to their own developments as well as primary to the local community. In globalizing education, the produce of education activities should aim at digesting the involved global knowledge into accepted forms that can feed the needs of individuals and their growth. The thinkable, educational outcome is to produce a man equipped safe bet types of global knowledge, who can act and think dependently of relevant global knowledge and wisdom. Strengths of the ideas is for some small countries, undoubtedly absorb and absorb the useful elements of global knowledge than to produce their own local knowledge from the beginning. The roots for growth and development are based on the global knowledge instead of local culture or value.
The ideas of amoeba is about the adaptation to the fasting changing global environment and the economic survival in serious international competitions. This ideas considers that fostering local knowledge is only a process to fully use and acquire global knowledge in the local context. Whether the accumulated knowledge is undoubtedly local or the local values can be preserved is not a major concern. Agreeing to this theory, the curriculum produce should contain the full range of global perspectives and knowledge to totally globalize education in order to maximize the advantage from global knowledge and come to be more adaptive to changing environment. Therefore, to accomplish broad international outlook and apply global knowledge locally and globally is crucial in education. And, cultural burdens and local values can be minimized in the produce of curriculum and education in order to let students be totally open for global learning. The thinkable, educational outcome is to produce a flexible and open man without any local identity, who can act and think globally and fluidly. The strengths of this ideas are also its limitations particularly in some culturally fruit countries. There will be possible loss of local values and cultural identity in the country and the local community will potentially lose its direction and public solidarity during amazing globalization.
Each country or local community may have its unique social, economic and cultural contexts and therefore, its tendency to using one ideas or a blend of theories from the typology in globalized education may be different from the other. To a great extent, it is difficult to say one is good than other even though the theories of tree, birdcage and crystal may be more adored in some culturally rich countries. For those countries with less cultural assets or local values, the theories of amoeba and fungus may be an accepted option for development. However, this typology can provide a wide spectrum of alternatives for policy-makers and educators to conceptualize and formulate their strategies and practices in fostering local knowledge for the local developments. See more about the theories in Cheng (2002; 11-18)
7. education strengthen since Independence in Tanzania
During the first phase of Tanzania political governance (1961-1985) the Arusha Declaration, focusing on "Ujamaa" (African socialism) and self-reliance was the major philosophy. The nationalization of the output and provision of goods and services by the state and the dominance of ruling party in community mobilization and participation highlighted the "Ujamaa" ideology, which dominated most of the 1967-1985 eras. In early 1970s, the first phase government embarked on an ample national campaign for universal passage to traditional education, of all children of school going age. It was resolved that the nation should have attained universal traditional education by 1977. The ruling party by that time Tanganyika African National Union (Tanu), under the leadership of the previous and first president of Tanzania Mwalimu Julius K. Nyerere, directed the government to put in place mechanisms for ensuring that the directive, commonly known as the Musoma Resolution, was implemented. The discussion behind that move was essentially that, as much as education was a right to each and every citizen, a government that is committed to the development of an egalitarian socialist community cannot segregate and discriminate her habitancy in the provision of education, especially at the basic level.
7.1. The Presidential Commission on Education
In 1981, a Presidential Commission on education was appointed to report the existing ideas of education and recommend primary changes to be realized by the country towards the year 2000. The Commission submitted its record in March 1982 and the government has implemented most of its recommendation. The most primary ones related to this paper were the making ready of the Teachers' assistance Commission (Tsc), the Tanzania professional Teachers Association, the introduction of new curriculum packages at primary, secondary and trainer education levels, the making ready of the Faculty of education (FoE) at the University of Dar-es-Salaam, the introduction of pre-primary trainer education programme; and the expansion of secondary education.
7.2. education during the Second Phase Government of Tanzania
The second phase government of Tanzania spanning from 1985 to 1995, was characterized by new liberal ideas such as free choice, market-oriented education and cost efficiency, reduced the government control of the Upe and other public services. The education sector lacked potential teachers as well as teaching/learning materials and infrastructure to address the expansion of the Upe. A vacuum was created while fragmented donor driven projects dominated traditional education support. The introduced cost sharing in the provision of public services like education and health hit most the poorest of the poor. This decrease in government support in the provision of public services including education as well as cost-sharing policies were not taken well, given that most of the incomes were below the poverty line. In 1990, the government constituted a National Task Force on education to report the existing education ideas and recommend a convenient education ideas for the 21st century.
The record of this task force, the Tanzania education ideas for the 21st Century, was submitted to the government in November 1992. Recommendations of the record have been taken into observation in the formulation of the Tanzania education and Training policy (Tetp). In spite of the very impressive expansionary education policies and reforms in the 1970s, the goal to accomplish Upe, which was once targeted for achievement in 1980, is way out of reach. Similarly, the Jomtien objective to accomplish Basic education for all in 2000 is on the part of Tanzania unrealistic. The participation and passage level have declined to the point that attainment of Upe is once again an issue in itself. Other developments and trends indicate a decline in the quantitative goals set rather than being closer to them (Cooksey and Reidmiller, 1997; Mbilinyi, 2000). At the same time serious doubt is being raised about school potential and relevance of education provided (Galabawa, Senkoro and Lwaitama, (eds), 2000).
7.3. Outcomes of Upe
According to Galabawa (2001), the Upe describing, diagnosis and discussing explored three measures in Tanzania: (1) the measure of passage to first year of traditional education namely, the apparent intake rate. This is based on the total amount of new entrants in the first grade regardless of age. This amount is in turn expressed as a division of the habitancy at the official traditional school entrance age and the net intake rate based on the amount of new entrants in the first grade who are of the official traditional school entrance age expressed as division of the habitancy of corresponding age. (2) The measure of participation, namely, gross enrolment ratio representing the amount of children enrolled in traditional education, regardless of age, expressed as a division of the official traditional school age population; while the net enrolment ratio corresponds to the amount of children of the official traditional school age enrolled in traditional school expressed as a division of corresponding population. (3) The measure of internal efficiency of education system, which reflect the dynamics of different operational decision making events over the school cycle like dropouts, promotions and repetitions.
7.3.1. passage to traditional Education
The absolute numbers of new entrants to grade one of traditional school cycles have grown steadily since 1970s. The amount of new entrants increased from colse to 400,000 in 1975 to 617,000 in 1990 and to 851,743 in 2000, a rise of 212.9 percent in relative terms. The apparent (gross) intake rate was high at colse to 80% in the 1970s dropping to 70% in 1975 and rise up to 77% in 2000. This level reflects the shortcomings in traditional education provision. Tanzania is marked by wide variations in both apparent and net intake rates-between urban and rural districts with previous performing higher. Low intake rates in rural areas reflect the fact that many children do not enter schools at the official age of seven years.
7.3.2. Participation in traditional Education
The regression in the gross and net traditional school enrolment ratios; the exceptionally low intake at secondary and vocational levels; and, the general low internal efficiency of the education sector have combined to create a Upe urgency in Tanzania's education ideas (Education Status Report, 2001). There were 3,161,079 traditional pupils in Tanzania in 1985 and, in the subsequent decade traditional enrolment rose dramatically by 30% to 4,112,167 in 1999. These absolute increases were not translated into gross/net enrolment rates, which undoubtedly experienced a decline threatening the sustainability of quantitative gains. The gross enrolment rate, which was 35.1% in late 1960's and early 1970s', grew appreciably to 98.0% in 1980 when the net enrolment rate was 68%. (ibid)
7.3.3. Internal Efficiency in traditional Education
The input/output ratio shows that it takes an mean of 9.4 years (instead of planned 7 years) for a pupil to faultless traditional education. The extra years are due to beginning late, drop-outs, repetition and high failure rate which is pronounced at accepted four where a competency/mastery exam is administered (Esdp, 1999, p.84). The drive towards Upe has been hampered by high wastage rates.
7.4. education during the Third Phase Government of Tanzania
The third phase government spanning the period from 1995 to date, intends to address both earnings and non-income poverty so as to create capacity for provision and consumption of good public services. In order to address these earnings and non-income poverty the government formed the Tanzania foresight 2025. foresight 2025 targets at high potential livelihood for all Tanzanians through the realization of Upe, the eradication of illiteracy and the attainment of a level of tertiary education and training commensurate with a primary mass of high potential human resources required to effectively write back to the developmental challenges at all level. In order to revitalize the whole education ideas the government established the education Sector development Programme (Esdp) in this period. Within the Esdp, there two education development plans already in implementation, namely: (a) The traditional education development Plan (Pedp); and (b) The Secondary education development Plan (Sedp).
8. Prospects and Challenges of traditional of education Sector
Since independence, The government has recognised the central role of education in achieving the widespread development goal of improving the potential of life of Tanzanians through economic growth and poverty reduction. Any policies and structural reforms have been initiated by the Government to heighten the potential of education at all levels. These include: education for Self-Reliance, 1967; Musoma Resolution, 1974; Universal traditional education (Upe), 1977; education and Training policy (Etp), 1995; National Science and Technology Policy, 1995; Technical education and Training Policy, 1996; education Sector development Programme, 1996 and National Higher education Policy, 1999. The Esdp of 1996 represented for the first time a Sector-Wide advent to education development to redress the qoute of fragmented interventions. It called for pooling together of resources (human, financial and materials) through the involvement of all key stakeholders in education planning, implementation, monitoring and assessment (Urt, 1998 quoted in MoEc 2005b). The Local Government Reform Programme (Lgrp) provided the institutional framework.
Challenges contain the primary shortage of classrooms, a shortage of well marvelous and master teachers competent to lead their learners through the new competency based curriculum and learning styles, and the absence of an assessment and exam regime able to reinforce the new approaches and bonus students for their potential to demonstrate what they know understand and can do. At secondary level there is a need to strengthen facilities primary as a supervene of increased transition rates. A major challenge is the funding gap, but the government is calling on its development partners to honour the commitments made at Dakar, Abuja, etc, to write back undoubtedly to its draft Ten Year Plan. A amount of systemic changes are at a primary stage, including decentralisation, public assistance reform, strengthening of financial supervision and mainstreaming of ongoing task and programmes. The varied measures and interventions introduced over the last few years have been uncoordinated and unsynchronised. Commitment to a sector wide advent needs to be accompanied by particular concentration to acquire coherence and synergy over sub-sectoral elements. (Woods, 2007).
9. education and School Leadership in Tanzania and the Impacts
Education and leadership in traditional education sector in Tanzania has passed through varied periods as explained in the stages above. The school leadership major reformation was maintained and more decentralized in the implementation of the Pedp from the year 2000 to date. This paper is also more involved with the implementation of globalization driven policies that affect the subjectivity of education changes. It is changing to receive what Tjeldvoll et al. (2004:1; quoted in Makule, 2008) considers as "the new managerial responsibilities". These responsibilities are focused to growth accountability, equity and potential in education which are global agenda, because it is through these, the global demands in education will be achieved. In that case school leadership in Tanzania has changed. The convert observed is due to the implementation of decentralization of both power and fund to the low levels such as schools. School leadership now has more autonomy over the resources allocated to school than it was before decentralization. It also involves community in all the issues concerning the school improvement.
10. Prospects and Challenges of School Leadership
10.1. Prospects
The decentralization of both power and funds from the central level to the low level of education such as school and community brought about varied opportunities. Openness, community participation and improved efficiency mentioned as among the opportunities obtained with the current changes on school leadership. There is improved accountability, capacity building and educational passage to the current changes on school leadership. This is viewed in strong transportation network established in most of the schools in the country. Makule (2008) in her study found out that the network was sufficient where every head trainer has to send to the district varied school reports such as monthly report, three month report, half a year report, nine month record and one year report. In each record there is a special form in which a head trainer has to feel facts about school. The form therefore, give catalogue of activities that takes place at school such as facts about the uses of the funds and the facts about attendance both trainer and students, school buildings, school assets, meetings, scholastic report, and school achievement and problems encountered. The supervene of globalization troops on school leadership in Tanzania has in turn forced the government to provide training and workshop for school leadership (MoEc, 2005b). The availability of school leadership training, Whether through workshop or training course, determined to be among the opportunities ready for school leadership in Tanzania
10.2. Challenges
Like all countries, Tanzania is bracing itself for a new century in every respect. The dawn of the new millennium brings in new changes and challenges of all sectors. The education and Training sector has not been spared for these challenges. This is, particularly leading in recognition of adverse/implications of globalisation for developing states including Tanzania. For example, in the case of Tanzania, globalisation entails the risks of increased dependence and marginalisation and thus human resource development needs to play a central role to redress the situation. Specifically, the challenges contain the globalisation challenges, passage and equity, inclusive or special needs education, institutional capacity building and the Hiv/aids challenge.
11. Closing
There are five types of local knowledge and wisdom to be pursued in globalized education, including the economic and technical knowledge, human and public knowledge, political knowledge, cultural knowledge, and educational knowledge for the developments of individuals, school institutions, communities, and the society. Although globalisation is related to a amount of technological and other changes which have helped to link the world more closely, there are also ideological elements which have strongly influenced its development. A "free market" dogma has emerged which exaggerates both the wisdom and role of markets, and of the actors in those markets, in the organisation of human society. Fashioning a strategy for responsible globalisation requires an diagnosis which separates that which is dogma from that which is inevitable. Otherwise, globalisation is an all too convenient excuse and explanation for anti-social policies and actions including education which undermine strengthen and break down community. Globalisation as we know it has profound public and political implications. It can bring the threat of exclusion for a large measure of the world's population, severe problems of unemployment, and growing wage and earnings disparities. It makes it more and more difficult to deal with economic policy or corporate behaviour on a purely national basis. It also has brought a safe bet loss of control by democratic institutions of development and economic policy.
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